Deprivation causes creation (minimalism in art forms) essays

Deprivation causes creation (minimalism in art forms) essays In todays society reaching new and diverse heights is what differentiates one from the other. Creating an idea or style that an audience or market has never been introduced to can begin a new and ever-changing revolution. Ever since minimalism was discovered, ones views on certain aspects of society have dramatically changed. During the 1960s, minimalism was first introduced in the United States (Berne). Since this idea was extremely foreign to Americans, the curiosity caused the economy to boom. Most art, music, and literature of the earlier days was complex and confusing for the spectators. Minimalism, on the other hand, was simple and reached a broader audience, precisely why the discovery was so successful (Berne). The lack or absence of some idea or meaning became the prime definition of minimalism. Today, one of the most popular intellectual achievements that can attain minimalist features is visual art. Being minimal in art can cause a viewer to focus on the true meaning of the work. When this idea of a new and refreshing style of art was introduced, it was like no other. Art has never before been so uncomplicated. This unique design has an absence of decoration and clutter (Hubbard). Unlike prior art, this is a return to bare essentials such as pyramids, cubes and other geometric volumes (Hubbard). Painting in general explores subtle gradations of single hues on a monochrome canvas (Struble 321). One would think some of the designs were created by a child because of the playful figures. This is somewhat the artists goal, which is to create a piece that is simple and easy to comprehend. Also, color plays its own role in minimalist works of art. Most often the artists choose primary colors, such as black, white, red and green. Occasionally, artists will also use bright and pa stel colors to add a touch of spunk to the piece (Hubbard). Other names in which th...

Convicted Murderer Sharee Miller to Wed

Convicted Murderer Sharee Miller to Wed Sharee Miller is a Michigan woman who is serving a life sentence for murder for her role in convincing an ex-cop she met online to kill her third husband. Now, Miller has plans to marry husband number four, Michael Denoyer. Conviction Miller, 36, was convicted in 2000 of conspiracy to commit first-degree murder and second-degree murder for the November 1999 shooting death of her husband, Bruce. Evidence revealed that Miller met ex-policeman Jerry L. Cassaday on the internet, had an affair with him, and convinced him to kill her husband, who was allegedly abusing her. However, the abuse allegations were found to be untrue. Prosecutors said when Cassaday discovered he had killed an innocent man, he committed suicide. Cassaday left behind enough information to convict Sharee Miller at trial. The case has been the topic of a best-selling book and a television movie. It has also been the subject for several real-crime television shows, including the one Denoyer saw. New Romance Michael Denoyer, 56, first saw Miller on an episode of Snapped on the Oxygen Channel and was smitten. It was something about her eyes, Denoyer said. However, the new couple has some hurdles in their way. Miller will not be eligible for parole until the year 2055, when he would be 103 and she would be 83.

How to grade a research paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

How to grade a research paper - Essay Example Moreover, formatting and citations form another key aspect of consideration while grading a written paper. In all the above, grading would be dependent on the extent of understanding and how expectations are met. Marks would be awarded as regards to the following analysis; does the written work meet expectations, fail to meet expectations or does it exceed the expectations. Logic would have low grades awarded if the paper fails to meet the expectations. Average awarding would be for the paper that meets expectations while higher grades would go for the papers that are extemporary and exceeds expectations. The capacity to logically organize ideas in paragraphs that are coherent and easy to understand is a basic evaluation aspect. Language competence is tested by evaluating word choice, word formation and sentence structure and the adequacy to convey basic meaning. Spelling and proper command of syntax is equally important as bad spelling would distort the intended meanings. Written work should also employ the proper style of writing as regard the discipline’s expectation. Qualitative analysis and general formatting play vital role in the overall understanding of a written research paper and thus must be regarded highly. Moreover, the introduction and conclusion work as executive summary of expectation or findings respectively and as such are key components of a properly done research paper. Finally, all works of literature sighted must be properly referenced in order to give certainty to originality of a written work. In my case as a professor, grading is not just awarding grades to the written work of students. It’s true that students interpret awarded marks in various manners. It becomes emotional to some and the interpretation may work to boost or lower the self worth of an individual student. Nevertheless, the variety of considerations

Assignment of Managing Organisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Assignment of Managing Organisation - Essay Example A series of facts can contribute to above outcome: a) the plan attempted has not been appropriately designed – in terms of the resources available for its realization, b) the reaction of employees – internal organizational environment – towards the specific plan has not been the one expected; the resistance developed has led to the cancellation of the plan or to the delay in the completion of one or more of its phases, c) the conditions in the organizational environment have changed at such level – referring to the period between the beginning of the planning process and the beginning of the implementation process – that the development of the plan became non-feasible or the value of the plan for the increase of the organizational performance has been eliminated. Current paper focuses on a particular aspect of the strategic management: the cross-cultural management; reference is made especially to the multi-national firms of the tourism and hospital ity industry. The cross-cultural management practices initiated by the managers of these firms are presented and evaluated. It is concluded that even if a range of such practices are available to the managers of these firms, still problems exist in the successful implementation of the relevant projects across these organizations. It has been proved that the above problem is mostly related with the lack of consistency of these strategies across the various departments of these organizations; moreover, failures have been identified in the service delivery to customers from different cultural backgrounds. These issues are analytically discussed below by referring to appropriate literature; the findings of empirical studies, where available, have been also employed in order to highlight the challenges of cross – cultural management in the tourism and hospitality industry worldwide. 2. Cross-cultural management in modern organizations 2.1. Cross-cultural management – descri ption, framework Culture may have different forms within different frameworks or using different criteria: for instance the national culture is differentiated from organizational culture; however, it has been proved that the former can influence the latter (Browaeys et al 2008, 20). The above view can be verified by referring to the study of Hofstede who emphasized on the fact that ‘management can be affected by differences between cultural groupings’ (Browaeys et al 2008, 21); the above researchers studied the performance of the strategies of IBM in markets worldwide – the performance of the firm in 64 countries was reviewed. It was proved that differences existed in the behaviour/ performance of employees in various organizational activities under the influence of the national culture - involved in each case (Browaeys et al 2008, 21). From a different point of view, Adler et al. (2008) noted that, in the context of international market, the understanding by glo bal firms of the national culture is important because of the following reason: being aware of the culture of a foreign country multi-nationals are able to make the necessary adjustments to their existing strategies so that the latter are implemented successfully in the firm’s branch in the particular country (Adler et al. 2008, 13). In this way, the culture of a country is closely related to the strategies used by the organizations operating across the specific country. In order to understand the challenges for the cross-cultural mana

Nursing and Health Care Essay Example for Free

Nursing and Health Care Essay 1. In 1200 B.C., the ill were treated with a mixture of physical, prayer, and magic spells. Temples were health centers. From the 1st-10th century initial care was at the local bishop’s house. They had deacons and deaconesses. In the 19th century, nurses cared for patients while at the risk of exposure to disease. Nursing in hospitals expanded in the 19th century, but nursing the communities did not increase significantly until 1893 when the Henry Street Settlement opened and focused on the health needs of poor people who lived in tenements in New York City. 2. 3. Nursing is the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and abilities; prevention of illness and injury; alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human response; and advocacy in the care of individuals, families, communities, and populations. 4. She saw the role of nursing as having â€Å"charge of somebody’s health† based on the knowledge of â€Å"how to put the body in such a state to be free of disease or to recover from disease.† She was the first nurse epidemiologist who connected poor sanitation with cholera and dysentery. 5. There were no standards to help control disease. Nursing was not a distinct profession. 6. Florence Nightingale-implemented methods to improve battlefield sanitation, which ultimately reduced illness, infection, and mortality. Clara Barton- 1st woman to gain employment in the federal government and is the founder of the American Red Cross and tended to soldiers on the battlefield, cleansing their wounds, meeting their basic needs and comforting them in death. Dorothea Lynde Dix-School teacher, founded schools, advocate for the mentally ill, formed an army nursing corps, and organized hospitals and ambulatory services. Mary Eliza Mahoney- 1st African-American RN in the USA, concerned with relationships between cultures and races, Cofounder of The National Association of Colored People. Isabel Hampton Robb- founder of modern ANA and American nursing theory, established nursing standards, develop a grading policy, author of nursing textbooks. Lillian Wald and Mary Brewster opened the Henry Street Settlement. 7. Theories are designed to explain a phenomenon such as self-care or caring. A nursing theory is a conceptualization of some aspect of nursing that describes, explains, predicts, or prescribes nursing. It helps to identify the focus, means, and goals of practice. Theories give us perspective for assessing our patients’ situations and organizing data and methods for analyzing and interpreting information. Integration of theory into practice is the basis for professional nursing. PROFESSIONALISM 1. Caring, Competence, Collaboration, Critical thinking, Commitment to Holistic care, Integrity, Responsibility, and Accountability. 2. A profession requires a basic liberal foundation and an extended education of its members, it has a theoretical body of knowledge leading to defined skills, abilities, and norms, it provides a specific service, members of a profession have autonomy in decision making and practice, and the profession as a whole has a code of ethics for practice. 3. LPN Associate Degree in Nursing (ADN)- 2 year program that focuses on the basic sciences and theoretical and clinical courses related to the practice of nursing. Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN)- 4 year programs that focuses on the basic sciences; theoretical and clinical courses; and courses in the social sciences, arts, and humanities to support the nursing theory Master’s Degree- is important for the roles of a nurse educator and nurse administrator, and it is required for an advanced practice registered nurse Doctoral * Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)- Emphasize more basic research and theory and research-oriented * Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP)- practice-focused and provides skills in obtaining expanded knowledge through the formulation and interpretations of evidence-based practice 4. Caregiver- help patients maintain and regain health, manage disease and symptoms, and attain a maximal level function and independence through the healing process. Advocate- protect your patient’s human and legal rights and provide assistance in asserting these rights if the need arises. Educator- explain concepts and facts about health, describe the reason for routine care activities, demonstrate procedures such as self-care activities, reinforce learning or patient behavior, and evaluate the patient’s progress in learning. Communicator- it allows you to know your patients’ strengths, weaknesses, and their needs. Without it you cannot give comfort and emotional support, make decisions with patients and families, give care effectively, protect patients from threats to well-being, coordinate and manage patient care, assist in patient rehabilitation, or provide patient education. Manager- uses appropriate leadership styles to create a nursing environment for the patients and staff that reflect the mission and values of the health care organization. 5. Licensure- Must pass NCLEX to receive license. This provides a standard minimized knowledge base for nurses. 6. Certified by national nursing organizations in about 20 specific areas of nursing practice. After passing an exam, maintain certification by completing CEU’s. 7. According to Benner, an expert nurse passes through five levels of proficiency when acquiring and developing generalist or specialized nursing skills. Novice-beginning nursing student learns via a specific set of rules or procedures. Advanced Beginner-Nurse has had some level of experience, may be observational, but is able to identify meaningful aspects or principles of nursing care. Competent- establish long-range goals, and has been in the same position for 2-3 years with an understanding of organization and specific care required by the type of patient. Proficient- Same clinical position for 2-3 years, focuses on managing care, and is able to assess an entire situation and can readily transfer knowledge gained from multiple previous experiences to a situation. Expert-can focus on multiple dimensions of a situation and has an intuitive grasp of an existing or potential clinical problem. Skilled at identifying patient-centered problems and problems related to the health care sys tem. 8. 9. Advanced Practice Nurse-most independent nurse, has master’s degree in nursing; advanced education in pathophysiology, pharmacology, and physical assessment; and certification and expertise in a specialized area of practice-clinical nurse specialist, certified nurse practitioner, certified nurse midwife, and certified RN anesthetist. Nurse Educator-works primarily in schools of nursing, staff development department of health care agencies, and patient education departments. Must have experience in clinical practice to provide them with practical skills and theoretical knowledge. Nurse Administrator- manages patient care and the delivery of specific nursing services within a health care agency. Examples: assistant nurse manager, nurse manager, house supervisor, director of nursing, and chief nurse executive or vice president. Nurse Researcher- investigates problems to improve nursing care and further define and expand the scope of nursing practice. 10. National League for Nursing-advances excellence in nursing education to prepare nurses to meet the needs of a diverse population in a changing health care environment. American Nurses Association- improves standards of health and availability of health care, to foster high standards for nursing, and to promote the professional development and general and economic welfare of nurses. International Council of Nursing- promote national associations of nurses, improving standards of nursing practice, seeking higher status for nurses, and providing an international power base for nurses. National Student Nurses Association/ Student Nurse Association of PA- consider issues of importance to nursing students such as career development and preparation for licensing. Specialty Organizations- seek to improve the standards of practice, expand nursing roles, and foster the welfare of nurses within specialty areas. Publish journals and present educational programs. 11. 12. Problem-solving approach to clinical practice that involves the conscientious use of current best evidence, along with clinical expertise and patient preferences and values in making decisions about patient care. 13. Ask a clinical question that is problem focused. Collect the most relevant and best evidence. Critically appraise the evidence you gather. Integrate all evidence with one’s clinical expertise and patient preferences and values in making a practice decision or change. Evaluate the practice decision or change. Share knowledge. LEGAL ISSUES IN NURSING PRACTICE 1. Statutory Law- written by state legislature and U.S. Congress-may be a civil or criminal offense. Civil laws protect the rights of individuals within our society and provide for fair and equitable treatment when civil wrongs or violations occur. Fines or community service and examples are malpractice or negligence. Criminal laws protect society as a whole and provide punishment for crimes, which are defined as municipal, state, and federal legislation-felony or misdemeanor. Administrative Law (Regulatory Law)-reflects decisions made by administrative bodies such as State Boards of Nursing when they pass rules and regulations. Common Law-results from judicial decision made in courts when individual legal cases are decided-informed consent, patients right to refuse treatment, negligence, and malpractice. 2. Federal laws- body of laws that were created by the federal government of the country. Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Law (EMTALA)- when patient comes to emergency department an appropriate medical screening occurs within the capacity of the hospital- cannot discharge or transfer patient until they are stable. The Health Care Quality Improvement Act of 1986. Patient Bill of Right- became patient care partnership given out to patients. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)- prohibits discrimination and ensures for persons with disabilities equal opportunities in employment, state and local government services, public accommodations, commercial facilities, and transportation. People with HIV do not have to disclose their disability. Patient Self-Determination Act (PSDA)-requires health care institutions to provide written information to patients concerning their right under state law to make decisions including the right to refuse treatment and formulate advance directives. Patients records need to document whether or not the patient has signed an advance directive. For living wills or durable powers of attorney for health care to be enforceable, the patient must be legally incompetent or lack to the capacity to make decisions regarding health care treatment. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)-protects individu als from losing their health care insurance when changing jobs by providing portability. These rules create patient rights to consent to the use and disclosure of their protected health information, to inspect and copy one’s medical record, and to amend mistaken or incomplete information. State Laws-Mandatory Reporting Laws-communicable diseases, school immunizations, suspected neglect and abuse, legal immunity provided to the reporter, may face civil or criminal action if nor reported. Good Samaritan Laws-limit liability and offer legal immunity if a nurse helps at the scene of an accident. Nurse Practice Act- describe and define the legal boundaries of nursing practice within each state. Scope of Practice-perform a procedure in which you have training for, distinguishes between nursing and malpractice. 3. RN-licensed and educated in nursing process and critical thinking; responsible for who you delegate to. LPN- licensed but does not cover assessment of patient. Can collect data but must give to nurse. NA/PCT- not licensed 4. Standards of care are set by ANA and are the legal requirements for nursing practice that describe the minimum acceptable nursing care. Nurse practice act defines scope of nursing practice, distinguishing between nursing and medical practice and establishing education and licensure requirements for nurses. Internal-Standards defined within hospital. External- developed by ANA and TJC-accredited body of the hospital-health department. 5. Established to help accredited organizations address specific areas of concern in regards to patient safety. Identify patients correctly. Improve staff communication. Use medicines safely. Prevent infection. Identify patient safety risks. Prevent mistakes in surgery. 6. Advance directive include living wills, health care proxies, and durable powers of attorney for health care. They are based on values of informed consent, patient autonomy over end-of-life decisions, truth telling, and control over the dying process. 7. Living wills represent written documents that direct treatment in accordance with a patient’s wishes in the event of a terminal illness or condition. The patient is able to declare which medical procedures he or she wants or does not want when terminally ill or in a vegetative state. Durable Power of Attorney for health care is a legal document that designates a person or persons of one’s choosing to make health care decisions when the patient is no lo nger able to make decisions on his or her own behalf. 8. 9. 10. Negligence is conduct that falls below a standard of care. Courts define negligence cases as the degree of care that an ordinarily careful and prudent person would use under the same or similar circumstances. 11. Malpractice is a type of negligence and is often referred to as professional negligence. When nursing care falls below a standard of care, nursing malpractice occurs. 12. Assault- any action that places a person in apprehension of a harmful or offensive contact without consent. Battery-any intentional touching without consent. False Imprisonment-unjustified restraint of a person without legal warrant and requires the patient be aware of confinement. Defamation of Character- publication of false statements that result in damage to a persons’ reputation. Invasion of Privacy- the release of a patient’s medical information to an unauthorized person such as a member of the press, the patient’s employer, or the patient’s family. Breach of Confidenti ality-

Contact :: essays research papers

The movie Contact, based on the novel by Carl Sagan, is a fascinating journey through the human mind that attempts to answer the questions that humans have been asking since the dawn of time, “Are we alone in the Universe?'; Ellie Arroway (portrayed by Jodie Foster), the main character of the movie refers to the historic event upon which the movie is based, contact with an alien civilization, as one of the most significant events in human history, and rightly so. This film explores the religious implications of such an event as well as the faith that one has to have afterwards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arroway’s journey indeed resembles that of the “hero’s quest.'; Of course Ellie being the hero, is faced with something the world has yet to encounter: contact from aliens. She then voluntarily sacrifices herself for what seems to be ‘a greater good’.....to be the first human to converse with an extra-terrestrial existence, only to be disregarded because of her beliefs. That was one hurdle she had to overcome. The religious extremist was a ‘demonic adversary’ that, for a moment in the movie, appeared to have terminally halted the entire project. Then ‘the wise counselor,’ the man with cancer, emerged with his purpose: to lead Arroway on the right path. Faced again with taking the journey that could only be taken alone, she of course had to find a reason that would make it harder to leave, the ‘companion’ (Matthew McConaughtey’s character). This was another hurdle she had to overcome. She takes the journey to come out a changed person, for the better, as the movie evidently is implying. And in the end, the hero is reunited with the one she loves, her ‘companion.’   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This movie bridges the gap between science and religion. How else can you explain the moving ending of an agnostic scientist trying to explain what just happened to her without the benefit of one shred of proof?

Cognitive Linguistic Approach to Language Study

It has its origins in the sass as a conscious reaction to Chomsky linguistics, tit its emphasis on formalistic syntactic analysis and its underlying assumption that language is independent from other forms of cognition. Increasingly, evidence was beginning to show that language is learned and processed much in the same way as other types of Information about the world, and that the same cognitive processes are Involved In language as are Involved In other forms of thinking.For example, In our everyday lives, we look at things from deferent angles, we get up close to them or further away and see them from different vantage points and with efferent levels of granularity; we assess the relative features of our environment and decide which are important and need to be attended to and which are less important and need to be backgrounder; we lump information together, perceive and create patterns in our environment, and look for these patterns in new environments when we encounter them.As we will see in this volume, all of these processes are at work in language too. The two key figures who are associated with the inception of Cognitive Linguistics are George Alaska and Ronald Linebacker. Both, t should be remembered, started their careers as members of a group of young scholars associated with the radical new approach spearheaded by NOAA Chomsky. By the sass, however, both Alaska and Linebacker were becoming increasingly disaffected with the formalistic approach to syntax associated with the Chomsky school.Both scholars turned their attention, Instead, to semantic Issues, which had been relatively neglected within the Chomsky framework. Alaska raised fundamental questions with regard to ‘objectivism' SE antics that is, theories which maintained that entente meaning maps onto objectively verifiable states of affairs in the world. He argued, instead, that semantic content is mediated by how speakers construe and conceptualize the world. An important aspect of co nstrual is how we categorize the things in our environment.Taking up the notion of prototype category developed by cognitive psychologist Eleanor Roach, Alaska argued that words do not name classically defined categories, that Is, categories constituted by a set of necessary and sufficient conditions. Rather, entitles can be good, or less good, members of a category. In a crucial and highly influential move, Alaska then proposed that the a syntactic construction, might also be analyses in terms of a central, prototypical member, and a number of extended, or more peripheral senses.A noteworthy milestone here is the dissertation by one of Alaska s students, Claudia Bergman, on the polymers of the preposition (Bergman, 1981). Bergman argued that t he ‘central', ‘prototypical' sense combines the meanings of ‘above' and ‘across', as in The bird flew over the yard . Extended senses, related in virtue of some common shared features, include the ‘above' sense , as in the electric is hovering over the hill, the ‘across' sense, as in Sam drove over the bridge , the ‘covering' sense She spread the tablecloth over the table, the dispersal sense, as in The guards were posted all over the hill , and several more.Bargeman's thesis (presented in Alaska 1987: Case Study 2) not only inspired a plethora of -studies, it also provided a template for polymers studies more generally. La Coffs second main contribution was to id entity a number of ‘conceptual metaphors' that underlie our abstract concepts and the way we think about the world and ourselves (Alaska and Johnson 1980, 1999).For example, one of the most important conceptual metaphors is the idea that ‘good' or ‘active' things are ‘up' whereas ‘bad' or ‘static' things are ‘down', which allows us to say that we're feeling IoW or having ‘down time', that things are or that that they are ‘up and going' . This metaphor was taken to r eflect our basic experience with the world that we have as children; when we fall over we feel bad; when we lie down we are stationary, when we get up we are active, and when we are feeling good, we literally ‘stand tall'.As discussed in a later chapter, conceptual metaphor theory has come in for a good agree of criticism in recent years and the theory has been refined to take account of empirical psycholinguistic findings as well as more socio-cultural approaches to language, but the basic tenets remain the same: language tends to reflect our physical interactions with the world and abstract concepts are linked to physical experiences through metaphor. Linebacker's contribution is perhaps more fundamental than Lassoes .His Cognitive Grammar (Linebacker 1987, 1991, 2008) offers a radical re-think of basic issues concerning the nature of linguistic meaning and its relation to the surface form of utterances. He proposed a ‘minimalist' approach, whereby the only elements in linguistic description are (a) phonological representations, concerning the overt form of an expression (whether spoken, written, or signed), (b) semantic representations, roughly, meanings, broadly understood to include pragmatic, situational, and encyclopedic aspects, and (c) symbolic relations between elements of (a) and elements of (b).On this basis, a language comes to be characterized, quite simply, as an inventory of phonological, semantic, and symbolic units, and language acquisition is a matter of a speaker's increasing command of these units. Importantly, the units differ along a number of dimensions. Thus some units are internally complex, while others are schematic to some degree or other.For example, the expression can-opener is internally complex, while the component unit can is an instance of the more schematic unit Noun, the whole expression being an instance of the complex schematic unit [N V- ere] and its associated semantics (roughly: ‘ a device that can be used for V- ins Ins'). The schematic unit can sanction an open-ended set of instantiations; in this way, Cognitive Grammar is bled to handle syntactic and morphological generalizations.It should also be noted that the unit has other semantic values (think of examples such as dog-lover , which denotes a person, not a thing, and , where the initial noun designates the place where a person dwells); in other words, the unit is polygamous, Just like the words of a language. The mechanics of Cognitive Grammar are discussed in more detail elsewhere in this volume. Three aspects, however, may be singled out for special mention here: The first concerns the way in which ‘grammaticality (or ‘acceptability- cognitive insists see little reason to distinguish the two concepts) is to be understood.Grammaticality, namely, has to do with the extent to which an expression is sanctioned, or legitimated, by an already existing schematic unit, or possibly by several such units, in the langu age; the fit, needless to say, need not be perfect, neither will different speakers of the language always assess the matter in the same way. * The second observation concerns the idea that syntactic organization is inherently symbolic and therefore meaningful, and that syntactic structures – Just like individual words ND morphemes associate a form and meaning.An early indicative study concerned the passive construction in English (Linebacker, 1982). Rather than being seen as the result of syntactic transformations, the construction and its various components, such as the verb be the verbal participle, and the by phrase, were argued to have semantic content, which contribute cumulatively to the semantic and pragmatic value of the passive construction. Thirdly, the Cognitive Grammar approach is sympathetic to the notion that linguistic knowledge, rather than residing in a small number of very road, high-level abstractions, may actually be rather low-level and ‘surface or iented', consisting in multiple memories of already encountered usage and relatively shallow generalizations over these remembered instances.In practical terms, this means that linguistic knowledge will tend to be centered on individual lexical items and their idiosyncratic properties, concerning the syntactic environments in which they occur and their stylistic or pragmatic values. Similarly, the representation of syntactic and word-formation constructions will incorporate knowledge of the lexical items which typically occur in hem, in addition, once again, to information about the kinds of situations in which they are likely to be used.Although it represents a radical departure in some ways from many established ideas in linguistics (such as the formerly widely held view that syntax, semantics and pragmatics were largely independent of one another), the principles underlying Cognitive Linguistics resonated with many traditional concerns one thinks of classics such as Gustavo Steer 's Meaning and Change of Meaning (1931), C. S. Lewdest Studies in Words (1960), and various works by Stephan Almsman (e. G. , Almsman, 1964)